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This important regional study is particularly revealing due to the unbroken history of Sino-Christian interactions in Xiamen and the extensive ties that its churches have maintained with global missions and overseas Chinese Christians. Its authors draw upon a wide range of foreign missionary and Chinese official archives, local Xiamen church publications, and fieldwork data to historicize the Protestant experience in the region. The empirical findings and analytical insights of this collection will appeal to scholars of religion, sociology and Chinese history.
Editors and affiliations. The Convention of Peking in opened up the entire country to travel by foreigners and provided for freedom of religion in China. Protestant missionary activity increased quickly after this treaty and within two decades missionaries were present in nearly every major city and province of China. Protestant missionaries were indirectly responsible for the Taiping Rebellion , which convulsed southern and central China from to Experiencing a severe mental disturbance after a series of failed imperial examinations , the scholar Hong Xiuquan had a dream which he interpreted in light of the page Liang Fa tract given to him years before.
Liang and other Protestants targeted Guangdong's prefectural and provincial examinations as massive gatherings of literate, potentially influential young men. Although he used the Protestant Bible and tracts as his movement's holy books and attached great importance to his version of the Ten Commandments , he preached his own form of Christianity, including the belief that he was Jesus's younger brother.
Roberts became an advisor to the Taipings but fell out with them in , fleeing for his life and denounced them. The Awakening in Britain and the work of J. Hudson Taylor — helped increase the number of missionaries in China. Missionary societies and denominations on both sides of the Atlantic responded. Many new societies were formed and hundreds of missionaries were recruited, many from university students influenced by the ministry of D. The Protestant missionary movement distributed numerous copies of the Bible, as well as other printed works of history and science.
They established and developed schools and hospitals practicing Western medicine.
The schools offered basic education to poor Chinese, both boys and girls. Before the time of the Chinese Republic , they would have otherwise received no formal schooling. Prominent among the China missionaries were idealistic and well-educated young men and women who were members of the Oberlin Band , the Cambridge Seven , and the Student Volunteer Movement. The slogan of the missionary movement was "The evangelization of the world. The China missionary lived an arduous life, especially in the 19th century.
Attrition was high because of health problems and mental breakdowns. Learning the Chinese language was a long-term and difficult endeavor. A majority of missionaries proved to be ineffective. Overall, in the 19th century, although missionaries arriving in China were usually young and healthy, about one-half of missionaries resigned or died after less than 10 years of service. Health reasons were the principal reason for resignation. Mortality among children born to missionary couples was estimated to be three times that of infant mortality in rural England.
In the late 19th century, health and living conditions began to improve as missionary organizations became more knowledgeable and the number of missionary doctors increased.
A blow to the morale of China missionaries was their low rate of success in the achievement of their primary objective: the conversion of Chinese to Christianity. Robert Morrison in 27 years of missionary effort could only report 25 converts and other early missionaries had similar experiences.
Missionaries turned towards establishing hospitals and schools as more effective in attracting Chinese to Christianity than proselytizing. In Chinese eyes, Christianity was associated with opium, the Taiping Rebellion with its millions of dead, imperialism , and the special privileges granted foreigners and Christian converts under the Unequal Treaties.
A Chinese nobleman said of the European and American presence in China: "Take away your missionaries and your opium and you will be welcome. Xinjiang was proselytized by Swedish missionaries [21] [22] to preach and convert Uyghurs Turki Muslims. Christian missionaries such as British missionary George W. The Bible was translated into the Kashgari dialect of Turki Uyghur. An anti-Christian mobs was broke out among the Muslims in Kashgar directed against the Swedish missionaries in In the name of Islam, the Uyghur leader Abdullah Bughra violently physically assaulted the Yarkand-based Swedish missionaries and would have executed them except they were only banished due to the British Aqsaqal's intercession in their favor.
George W. Hunter noted that while Tungan Muslims Chinese Muslims would almost never prostitute their daughters, Turki Muslims Uyghurs would prostitute their daughters , which was why Turki prostitutes were common around the country. Swedish Christian missionary J. Lundahl wrote in that the local Muslim women in Xinjiang married Chinese men because of a lack of Chinese women, the relatives of the woman and other Muslims reviled the women for their marriages.
The new mission is interesting, in that it is an attack upon China from the west. Two German missionaries, accompanied by a doctor and a native Christian, will arive [ sic ] in Kashgar next spring and begin work. It may be added that the British and Foreign Bible Society is at present printing the four Gospels in the dialect of Chinese Turkestan, and that in all probability they will be ready before the new mission is settled at Kashgar.
Missionary societies initially sent out only married couples and a few single men as missionaries. Wives served as unpaid "assistant missionaries. Over time, as it became clear that Christian schools were necessary to attract and educate potential Christians and leaders and change foreign cultures that were unreceptive to the Christian message as proclaimed by male missionary preachers. In the s women's missionary organizations, especially the Woman's Foreign Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States and women began to become missionaries around the world in sizable numbers.
Women missionaries, married and unmarried, would soon outnumber men. The rise of female missionaries to prominence was not without friction with men. An Baptist conference affirmed that "women's work in the foreign field must be careful to recognize the headship of men. In China, due to cultural norms, male missionaries could not interact with Chinese women and thus the evangelical work among women was the responsibility of missionary women.
Female missionary doctors treated Chinese women and female missionaries managed girl's schools. Women missionaries were customarily paid less than men. The Methodists in the s paid a male missionary to China a salary of dollars per year, but the first two unmarried female missionaries the Methodists sent to China, Beulah and Sarah Woolston, received an annual salary of only dollars each.
Protestantism in Xiamen | SpringerLink
The early unmarried female missionaries were required to live with missionary families. Despite their preponderance in numbers, female missionaries, married and unmarried, were often excluded from participation in policy decisions within missionary organizations which were usually dominated by men.
Only in the s, for example, were women given a full voice and vote in the missionary meetings in China of the American Board. Women missionaries had a "civilizing mission" of introducing Protestant middle-class culture to China, educating Chinese women and "elevating their gender. The widespread view in Europe and America in the late 19th century was that "Civilization cannot exist apart from Christianity.
Nineteenth-century women missionaries to China included two early explorers of Tibet, Englishwoman Annie Royle Taylor and Canadian Susanna Carson Rijnhart , both of whom undertook much more dangerous expeditions than famous explorers of the day such as Sven Hedin and Aurel Stein. The Boxer Rebellion in was the worst disaster in missionary history. One hundred and eighty-nine Protestant missionaries, including 53 children, and many Roman Catholic priests and nuns were killed by Boxers and Chinese soldiers in northern China. An estimated 2, Protestant Chinese Christians also were killed.
The China Inland Mission lost more members than any other organization: 58 adults and 20 children were killed. The Chinese had recognized the rights of the missionaries only because of the superiority of Western naval and military power. Many Chinese associated the missionaries with Western imperialism and resented them, especially the educated classes who feared changes that might threaten their position. As the foreign and missionary presence in China grew, so also did Chinese resentment of foreigners.
The Boxers were a peasant mass movement, stimulated by drought and floods in the north China countryside.
The Qing dynasty took the side of the Boxers, besieged the foreigners in Beijing in the Siege of the International Legations and was invaded by a coalition of foreign armies, the Eight Nation Alliance. The greatest loss of missionary lives was in Shanxi where, among others, all 15 members of the Oberlin Band were executed. He wanted to demonstrate "the meekness and gentleness of Christ" to the Chinese. Missionaries, such as William Ament , utilized United States Army troops to confiscate goods and property from Boxers and alleged Boxers to compensate Christian families for their losses.
Critics of such actions included the writer Mark Twain , who called Ament and his colleagues the "reverend bandits of the American Board. The Boxer Rebellion had a profound impact on both China and the West. The Qing government attempted reform and missionaries found the Chinese more receptive to both their evangelical and their "civilizing" message, but the West lost the certainty of its conviction that it had the right to impose its culture and religion on China.
Opium was the Great Britain's most profitable export to China during the 19th century. Early missionaries, such as Bridgman, criticized the opium trade—but missionaries were equivocal. The treaties ending the two opium wars opened up China to missionary endeavor and some missionaries believed that the opium wars might be part of God's plan to make China a Christian nation.
In the s, the effects of opium use were still largely undocumented by science. Protestant missionaries in China compiled data to demonstrate the harm of the drug, which they had observed. They created the Anti-Opium League in China among their colleagues in every mission station, for which the American missionary Hampden Coit DuBose served as the first president.