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Such challenges run the gamut from such illegal activities as wildlife poaching, 28 to formal petitions for the removal of protected status. As an example of the latter, Kenya's Amboseli National Park was recently downgraded to a national reserve and turned over to a governing body drawn from the Maasai people, who are the area's pre-colonial inhabitants. Human occupants, understandably, tend to be primarily interested in their own daily lives and well being. They may be unaware of their living area's protected status or of the preservation rationale that has been applied to the lands in which they live.

They may have limited motivation for honoring, much less actively engaging in, the protection of heritage material. Conflicts arise because various constituents have quite different goals and objectives. Our experience in northern Tanzania's protected areas leads us to the conclusion that each situation presents a more or less unique set of difficulties, such that it is virtually impossible to generalize about coping strategies.


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However, we can at least isolate one essential ingredient for dealing with the full range of CHM problems in protected areas. We have found that, no matter what specific issues arise, they must be approached with a view toward patient, sometimes painfully tedious, education on both sides of the issue. In the long run, such education could be enormously facilitated by its extension into adult curricula.

CHM Infrastructure The effectiveness of any kind of CHM project depends critically on its organizational framework, including research and curatorial staff, facilities, funding, and administration. Unfortunately, there are shortcomings in some, if not all, of these areas throughout the Third World and in many developed countries as well. One of the basic needs in Tanzania is the establishment of a national inventory database of cultural heritage resources. The most significant problem regarding research and curatorial personnel appears to be a pervasive lack of CHM training.

Thus, while African university graduates in archeology are generally competent in field and laboratory research, they are often inadequately trained for CHM work. The obvious solution would be to add a substantial array of CHM coursework and field experience to the university archeology curriculum. Of course, this is much easier to envision than to put into effect, for it entails not only a major curriculum restructuring, but also retraining of faculty and the building of necessary instructional infrastructure, all of which would require large funding increments.

The same applies to the sometimes desperate need for improved field equipment, research laboratories, and curatorial facilities, whether located in a museum or on a university campus. Supplying the funds needed to carry out a program of this sort would present many Third World nations with an insurmountable fiscal challenge. However, there is at least a glimmer of hope, thanks to some recent developments in the CHM practices of southern African countries.

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Among the more encouraging of these is the establishment in South Africa and Botswana of the principle that development projects subject to cultural resource clearance are required to pay for mitigation. It might be possible to dedicate a portion of the proceeds to the enhancement of CHM infrastructure. Along these lines, it is advisable that parks should be required to dedicate a small percentage of their tourist fees to support CHM projects within their borders. Ultimately, of course, any such initiatives will need to be established by governments, a fact which underscores the vital importance of engaging the interest of government agencies and politicians in CHM issues.

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We can identify five major categories of need for the proper management of heritage resources. These are: 1 education about cultural heritage throughout Tanzania society, 2 enforcement of laws and improved legislation concerning CHIA, 3 coordination of roles and responsibilities among various constituencies and among natural and cultural resource managers, 4 training for CHM specialists, and 5 research on archeological heritage.

Because the kinds of issues we face in Tanzania are evident in various other parts of the world, remedies proposed here may point the way toward improved CHM in other nations. Education Like the citizens of many nations, most Tanzanians do not have adequate information about their rich and diversified cultural heritage. Many do not comprehend the immense contribution of Tanzania's cultural heritage to an understanding of human origins and history.

Education and outreach programs for both children and adults could help to avoid the inadvertent destruction of cultural heritage in protected areas. It is important to raise awareness of cultural heritage throughout Tanzania, touching all age groups and community categories.

In reality, it will be expensive in terms of financial resources and personal commitment of time and energy aimed at eliciting the assumption of responsibility for CHM by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, other government and non-government conservation institutions, and Tanzanian archeologists. Law Enforcement Although the cultural heritage is legally protected, the law that requires developers to conduct CHIA has yet to be adequately elaborated.

Under the Antiquities Act, a developer who incidentally exposes a cultural resource during development activities is supposed to stop and report the discovery to the Director of Antiquities. The Director of Antiquities is then required to visit the site, evaluate the resource's cultural significance, and make appropriate recommendations. This legal requirement is problematic because developers might either not recognize the resource's cultural value, or not report the evidence to the Director of Antiquities.

Therefore, there is a need to revise the Antiquities Act to include legislation that stipulates mandatory CHIA prior to project implementation and requires developers to meet the costs of such activities. Coordination Separate government entities and different statutes manage the cultural and natural heritage resources.

Accordingly, the management in protected areas is complicated by overlapping jurisdictions and inconsistent cooperation among responsible parties. The result of such confusion is illustrated by the construction of a permanent tourist tented camp, in , at the rim of Olduvai's main gorge 35 and its later relocation to the Kelogi Hills. The Kelogi Hills contain rock art and other cultural heritage resources, and are located within a five-kilometer area around Olduvai Gorge, an area that is legally protected because of its cultural importance.

In addition, the lack of cooperation and coordination between stakeholders, that is, several government departments and public institutions, on the one hand, and the general public, on the other, result in conflicts and inefficient cultural heritage management. Managing the cultural and natural heritage under one institution 36 with protective legal status would lead to a more effective and streamlined oversight of cultural and natural heritage resources. Moreover, it will facilitate efforts to build a national cultural heritage inventory and database.

Coordinating the management plans and legal status of entities that are now separately responsible for natural and cultural heritage would alleviate the current overlapping jurisdictions and poor cooperation between the Director of Antiquities, on the one hand, and TANAPA and NCAA, on the other. Training Proper management of cultural heritage resources in protected areas is also hampered by the lack of trained cultural heritage specialists.

Neither NCAA nor TANAPA has archeologists on staff to recognize such resources and recommend measures for reducing or eliminating impact during construction and other earthmoving activities. Improving training for CHM specialists will require universities to establish CHM teaching programs at the certificate and diploma levels for personnel who would fill the CHM positions we are advocating.

This type of training will also benefit the personnel who are currently working in the cultural sector, but lack the basic professional and technical skills their duties require, and, at the same time, lack qualifications for university degree courses. Training a cadre of junior staff that in essence deals daily with the activities of CHM would greatly improve the management of cultural heritage in protected areas and Tanzania in general. Archeological Research Finally, we wish to stress that the term CHM encompasses a wide range of activities aimed at using cultural heritage resources responsibly so as to ensure not only that they are conserved for future generations, but also understood in depth and applied to contemporary scientific and socioeconomic purposes.


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This is, after all, a concern related to what has been recognized as one of the basic human rights, our cultural rights. This approach will not only help prevent park and game personnel's unwitting destruction of cultural heritage in protected areas, but also create opportunities to enhance tourism experiences and improve our understanding of ecosystems within the protected areas. It is worth emphasizing that virtually the only way to obtain information about the ecological history of protected areas, and hence the natural and cultural processes that continually shape and reshape their constituent ecosystems,is through archeological investigations aimed at recovering data about human activities, climate, and non-human organisms over time spans measured in millennia.

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Such data should ultimately reveal ecosystem dynamics that unfold over very large time scales and are therefore inaccessible to research focused on the present. Thus, the attempt to manage protected ecosystems with a view toward their long-term well-being depends largely on archeological inquiry. The long-range survival of Tanzania's cultural heritage depends greatly on implementing the kinds of measures we are recommending, as well as others that may arise from experience with the kinds of CHM programs we are advocating.

Audux Z. He may be reached at P. Box , Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, aumab udsm.

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John F. Box , Davis, CA , U. Anthony R. Katherine M. Homewood and W. Add, Item 9. Richard L. Leakey and Derek A. Mary D. Leakey, Richard L. Hay, D. Thurber, R. Protsch, and R. Manega, Geochronology, geochemistry, and isotopic study of the Plio-Pleistocene hominid sites and the Ngorongoro Volcanic Highlands in northern Tanzania Ph. Tim D. White, "Additional fossil hominids from Laetoli, Tanzania: specimens," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 53 : Drake and G. Leakey and John M. Harris Oxford: Clarendon Press, , John R. Bower and Tom J. Bower and P. Day and C. Magori, "A new hominid fossil skull L.

Harris and G. Paul C. Audax Z. Chapurukha M. Kusimba and Sibel B. Ismail Serageldin and June Taboroff, No. Washington, D. Mapunda and P. Mturi, Mapunda, and P. Michael H. Issa G. Shivji and Wilbert B. Shivji and Wilbbert B. Input-output analysis of income, employment and tax revenue" Nottingham: University of Nottingham, , www.

Scott MacEachern, "Cultural resource management and Africanist archaeology," Antiquity 75 : Julie K. Young, Leah R. David Quammen, "An endangered idea," National Geographic 4 : Mturi, "Whose cultural heritage? Conflicts and contradictions in the conservation of historic structures, towns, and rock art in Tanzania," in Plundering Africa's Past , eds. Peter Schmidt and Roderick J. Bower and Audax Z. Mabulla, "Cultural heritage management in the Serengeti National Park Tanzania : From conflict to cooperation," Paper delivered at the 65th annual meeting of the Society for Applied Anthropology, Poznansky, "Coping with the collapse in the s: West African Museums, universities and national patrimonies," in Plundering Africa's Past , eds.

Peter R. Schmidt and Roderick J. Jonathan N. Karoma, "The deterioration and destruction of archaeological and historical sites in Tanzania," in Plundering Africa's Past , eds. Mabulla, "Tanzania's endangered heritage: a call for a protection program," African Archaeological Review 13 3 : ; B. Mapunda, "Destruction of archaeological heritage in Tanzania: the cost of ignorance," in Trade in Illicit Antiquities: the Destruction of the World's Archaeological Heritage , eds. Ndamwesiga J.

Karoma, "Cultural policy and its reflection on heritage management in Tanzania," in Salvaging Tanzania's Cultural Heritage , eds. Kusimba and S. Schmidt, "The human right to a cultural heritage: African applications," in Plundering Africa's Past , eds. National Park Service U. Department of the Interior. Search: '' this park '' NPS. Interview with John O. Mabulla and John F. Figure 1. Figure 4 Figure 4. Figure 5 Figure 5. A Global View of Cultural Heritage Management While the CHM issues we have experienced in Tanzania spring more or less directly from particular circumstances in the areas where we work, they are by no means restricted to that part of the world, having been reported from locations scattered throughout Africa, other Third World regions, and also in highly developed nations.

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