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- Joseph Leibenguth
- Effects of HIV on executive function and verbal fluency in Cameroon | Scientific Reports
- A perfect ID card for Cameroon’s citizens
Titles on Independence - General Up. French Cameroon was the second of the French territories in West Africa, after Guinea, to become independent. The UPC was banned in , after violent clashes with the French. After French Cameroon became independent in , and Ahmadou Ahidjo, who supported strong collaboration with the French, became its president, the UPC continued its struggle. The British Cameroons were divided into two parts after a referendum held in , after which the Northern Cameroons became part of Nigeria, and the Southern Cameroons joined Cameroon.
Titles on Cameroon - Ahmadou Ahidjo Up. The nation state Togo finds its origins in the colony of German Togoland. This colony had been divided into British and French administrative zones under a League of Nations mandate after the First World War; it subsequently became a UN trust territory.
This partition also divided the territory of the largest ethnic group in Togoland, the Ewe. As a consequence, political struggle in Togo was long dominated by the struggle for Ewe unification, with Sylvanus Olympio as its most high-profile protagonist. Ultimately, his unification struggle was fruitless as, in , the people of the British zone voted for unification with the Gold Coast, later independent Ghana. Titles on Togo - Sylvanus Olympio Up. A number of West African leaders advocated maintaining some form of political union.
Under the flag of this Federation, independence was gained on 20 June It did not take long for political differences regarding leadership and political direction to arise within the Federation. Senegal withdrew from the union in August Madagascar came under growing French influence from the late nineteenth century, first as a French protectorate, and later under French rule. A number of Malagasy rebellions marked the expansion of French influence on the island.
This rejection, and the harsh response of the French authorities, sparked the Malagasy Uprising, which lasted from till , and was violently repressed by the French. After a relatively peaceful period, Madagascar voted for autonomy in Independence was gained on 26 June Philibert Tsiranana, a moderate nationalist, became president.
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Titles on Madagascar - Philibert Tsiranana Up. Somalia has a history of various European countries competing for its territories, in the so-called Scramble for Africa, at the end of the nineteenth century. From that time until the end of World War I, the Somali Dervish movement, under the leadership of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, conducted a successful military struggle against the colonial forces, and was able to keep shifting territories in what later became the republic of Somalia.
Aden Abdulle Osman Daar became president. This movement, however, was deeply divided internally on issues of federalism and the road to independence. In , riots broke out in the capital Leopoldville and in Stanleyville. In response, the Belgians organized the Round Table Conference, during which the independence of Congo was agreed upon. The Democratic Republic of Congo gained independence on 30 June Joseph Kasa-Vubu became president, with Patrice Lumumba as prime minister. In , Patrice Lumumba was murdered. A long unstable and violent period followed.
The history of Benin originates in the ancient Kingdom of Dahomey, which was colonized by the French, and in became known as French Dahomey.
The nationalist movement in Dahomey was deeply divided along territorial lines. These tensions came to the surface after the Republic of Dahomey became a self-governing colony in December After the elections, riots broke out between supporters of the two southern leaders. Failing to agree on a division of power amongst themselves, Hubert Maga was chosen to be premier, as a compromise.
He was inaugurated as the first president when Dahomey became independent on 1 August After independence, political rivalry between the three remained. All three men served as president of Dahomey during the turbulent years between and In the aftermath of the elections, Sawaba was banned and its leaders fled into exile. Hamani Diori became the first president of Niger when it gained full independence on 3 August Niger became a one-party state and maintained close ties with France.
Joseph Leibenguth
Sawaba continued its resistance underground. It had been made a separate territory after the Volta-Bani war, an armed rebellion against the French during World War I. French rule was highly dependent on the structure of the Mossi Kingdoms, which, historically, were located in this area. The post-World War II independence movement was divided on the issue of Haute-Volta becoming part of a federation with other French territories in West Africa, or a separate territory. After World War II, he entered electoral politics, where he gained popularity by successfully proposing a bill in the French National Assembly to abolish forced labour.
Apart from a number of alleged plots against his person, in and , his power was largely undisputed. Chad was a French colony from the beginning of the 20th century, but the French invested little in its government and primarily used it as a reservoir of forced labour. The most attention was paid to the South, where the French invested in cotton production.
The divide between the North and the South also ran along religious lines, the North being primarily Muslim, the South adhering to African religions and Christianity. These differences were reflected in the formation of political parties after World War II. Soon thereafter he turned Chad into a one-party state and began a programme of nationalization.
As was the case in Congo Free State, the colonial period in Ubangi-Shari was marked by brutal exploitation, by means of forced labour in the extraction of rubber, and on the Congo-Ocean railway. In response to these atrocities, Ubangi-Shari became the epicentre of the Kongo-Wara rebellion against the French in , led by followers of the religious prophet and healer Karnou.
He lost his parents at a young age. As an orphan, he was taken in by missionaries and received missionary education. He became a Roman Catholic priest and later became involved in politics, as a representative in the French National Assembly. He negotiated for, and became Prime Minister of, the autonomous territory Central African Republic in He did not live to see its independence as he died in a plane crash in Due to its strategic location on the mouth of the Congo River, it has had a long history of shifting powers between African kingdoms, and European conquerors, most importantly the Portuguese, French, and Belgians.
As was the case in other parts of French Equatorial Africa, the French initially allowed concessionary companies to exploit the area economically, which led to gross maltreatment of the local population. Brazzaville was designated as the administrative capital of French Equatorial Africa, and therefore Congo Brazzaville, in contrast to other territories, received relatively great attention in the development of public services and infrastructure, especially the construction of the Congo-Ocean railway between Brazzaville and Pointe-Noire.
When his movement gained too much influence, Matsoua was imprisoned and he lost his life in captivity in After World War II, several nationalist leaders competed for influence. Priest and politician Fulbert Youlou, who initially managed to position himself as a successor of Matsoua, and later gained the goodwill of the French, became the first president of independent Congo Brazzaville, on 15 August Gabon was a territory in French Equatorial Africa that remained relatively untouched by outsiders during the precolonial and colonial period. In the precolonial period, European traders visited the coastal areas, while the jungles in the interior were penetrated only by explorers and missionaries.
The territory received limited attention from the French, with the exception of its port at Libreville, the capital that had been founded by freedmen in Titles on Gabon - Leon M'ba Up. Senegal became an independent country on its withdrawal from the Mali Federation on 20 August In colonial times, Senegal had a special status in French West Africa. Exercising full rights, however, was limited for those of African descent. The deputies in this chamber were among the earliest advocates for the decolonization of Senegal.
Their rivalry culminated in a final clash in , when Dia was accused of an attempted coup and imprisoned. In precolonial history, Nigeria was home to a number of powerful African kingdoms and states. After the British claim on the area received international recognition at the Berlin Conference of , it took them many years to gain control over the whole region.
The British took advantage of the ancient state structures and adopted a system of indirect rule, leaving traditional leaders in power who owed allegiance to the colonial authority. The area was initially divided into Northern Nigeria, Southern Nigeria, and Lagos Colony, with each region having its own system of governance. The nationalist movement that arose in the interbellum originated among educated Nigerians from the south who opposed the continued power of traditional rulers and championed for representation in the regional power structures.
Taxation and water rates were also grounds for a number of rebellions against colonial rule. Regional and interregional differences were great. On 1 October , Nigeria gained its independence as a federation, becoming a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations, with Elizabeth II as its nominal head of state. It was mostly dependent on French Senegal, and colonial presence was limited to the coast line, the banks of the Senegal river, and Saharan trade routes.
Colonial sovereignty strongly relied on traditional power structures, and resembled the system of British indirect rule.
Effects of HIV on executive function and verbal fluency in Cameroon | Scientific Reports
Opposition to colonial rule was limited to specific areas and groups. After World War II, political awareness started to grow, however no strong nationalist movement developed. The population at that time was still predominantly nomadic, the capital was founded at Nouakchott. After briefly working as a teacher at a Roman Catholic school and seminary, he pursued higher education in the United States and the United Kingdom.
He was co-organizer of the 5th Pan African Congress in Manchester in During this period, he was detained by the British. When Ghana became an independent state in March , Nkrumah became its prime minister, and later president of the Republic of Ghana. During his presidency, Nkrumah gained popularity for his public investments and a policy of Africanization. Nkrumah died of cancer in , in Bucharest. After receiving limited primary and secondary education, and beginning a career as a postal clerk, he became active as a trade unionist.
A perfect ID card for Cameroon’s citizens
Senghor was born in a coastal town south of Dakar. He was granted French citizenship and worked as a teacher, before he was drafted into the French army during the Second World War. On his return to Africa after the war, Senghor began his political career as a deputy from Senegal in the French National Assembly, a post that he held for more than a decade.
When Senegal joined with the Sudanese Republic to form the Federation of Mali, Senghor became president of the federal assembly. In August , Senegal separated from the federation and Senghor was elected as the first president of Senegal. After an attempted coup by his prime minister, Mamadou Dia, in , Senghor kept a strong hold on Senegalese government. He was co-founder of the Negritude movement, which revolted against colonial values and glorified the African past and traditional African society.
In spite of his African nationalism, he refused to reject European culture. His many writings include poetry, philosophy, linguistics, politics, and sociology. He also examined African socialism, positing that socialism was not new to Africans for whom the concept of sharing had been important throughout history. Senghor died at his home in France on 20 December at the age of He reportedly suffered from heart problems. Ndi, Adaku T. Milton Keynes : Penguin Books, Indianapolis [etc.
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Lessons from Africa's past Adar, Korwa G. Paris : Zones, Boulder, Colorado : Lynne Rienner Publishers, Paris : Presses de Sciences Po, Rennes : Presses universitaires de Rennes, Kampala : Muhanguzi Publishers U Ltd, Paris : L'Harmattan, In: Outre-mers : revue d'histoire , t. Johannesburg : Continental Press, Paris : Karthala, Nsamba [Kampala] : [s. Basingstoke [etc. Firenze : Casterman, New York [etc. Roger Louis.