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- Wind resource assessment and wind power potential for the city of Ardabil, Iran | SpringerLink
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CRF is associated with a decreased risk of all-cause mortality and chronic illnesses, especially cardio-vascular disease [ 3 ]. Cross-sectional studies and randomized clinical trials suggest that CRF is associated with brain structure and function [ 4 ] and improvements in CRF brought about by exercise training are implicated in the restoration of neural and cognitive functioning in older adults [ 5 , 6 ].
Moreover, several longitudinal studies [ 21 , 39 ] have shown that, rather than the level of physical activity PA , the level of physical fitness in childhood and adolescence especially CRF and muscular strength determines the future risk of cardiovascular disease. Adverse associations between fitness and disease risk factors may be a direct function of the relationship between CRF and adiposity. Physical fitness is partially determined by genetic endowment, yet it is highly modified by environmental factors [ 2 ]. For example, it was reported that physical fitness was affected by several environmental factors such as PA levels [ 19 , 34 ], socioeconomic status [ 18 , 22 ], television viewing [ 31 ] and anthropometric factors [ 11 , 23 , 28 ].
Simultaneous assessment of CRF especially in children , anthropometric variables, and environmental factors such as socioeconomic status, sedentary behaviour, and activity levels is scanty. On the other hand, CRF data in Iranian children are lacking.
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Therefore, the purpose of this investigation is to survey CRF, activity level, various anthropometric variables, sedentary behaviour, and socioeconomic status in year old boys in the city of Ardabil, Iran. This cross-sectional study was carried out in normal, healthy year male students. All children and their parents were thoroughly informed about the purposes and contents of the study and written informed consent was obtained from parents.
The age of the subjects was determined from their date of birth in their school register. The age was rounded off to the nearest whole number. The measurements and the tests of participants were carried out during regularly scheduled physical education classes. The protocol of the study was approved by the university ethics committee in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration. The 1-mile run test was used to assess V. The objective of the mile run was to cover a mile in the shortest time possible. Students were encouraged to run throughout the test and to take walking breaks only as needed.
The physical education instructor also reminded children to avoid starting too fast to avoid premature fatigue. The CRF is then calculated according to the following formula [ 40 ]:. This test has been shown to be valid and reliable for the prediction of V. O 2 max in children [ 40 ]. Scoring is based on a 5-point Likert type scale, with an overall PA score derived from the mean of each scored item. Greater levels of PA are indicated by higher scores and vice versa.
The PAQ-C has been tested and re-tested and results have shown that the instrument is a reliable and valid measure of PA for children during the school year. The current PA recommendations for young people, i. Body weight kg was measured using a standard balance beam Seca Body height cm was measured using a precision stadiometer Seca , attached to the balance beam.
Waist circumference WC was measured at the level of the umbilicus and the superior iliac crest. The measurement was made at the end of a normal expiration while the subject stood upright, with feet together and arms hanging freely at the sides. Waist circumference was divided by the height to determine the waist to height ratio WHtR.
A WHtR cut off of 0. Body adiposity was then estimated using the equation and sex-specific reference values proposed by Lohman [ 25 , 26 ], based on summing the two skin-fold measurements. Body fat percentage and then fat mass were calculated according to the following equations:. Children and their parent s were given a written questionnaire, which was filled out by the parent s only if the child was aged less than 8 years, and both parent and child together if the child was between the ages of 8 and If completed by the parent and child together, they were instructed to agree on and record a single estimate of average daily time spent watching TV time spent watching TV, videotapes, or DVDs and playing video games time spent on a home computer or video game.
Parent estimates of child viewing and playing time have been shown to be reliable predictors of child screen time [ 1 ]. In order to further ensure the validity of TVVPT estimates, we verbally reviewed and confirmed the time estimate obtained from the questionnaire during the clinical interview with the parent s and, if aged over 8 years, the child. Socioeconomic status was computed from parent education and occupational status using the four-factor Hollingshead index [ 20 ]. Based on the Hollingshead criteria, scores were computed for parental occupational status and education and combined to form the SES score.
Wind resource assessment and wind power potential for the city of Ardabil, Iran | SpringerLink
In cases where SES scores were available for both parents, the mean was used. Means and standard deviations were calculated for each variable using descriptive statistics. One-way analyses of variances ANOVA were carried out to assess differences in the TVVPT and physical activity scores among the underweight, normal weight, overweight and obese subjects of this study.
The Scheffe correction was used for multiple comparisons. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test was used to determine whether the data set was well modelled by a normal distribution. According to the data, 8. The mean values and standard deviations for various anthropometric variables are shown in Table 1. Our data indicated a significant relationship of physical fitness and sedentary behaviour V.
O 2 max among the underweight, normal weight, overweight and obese children are presented in Table 5. Note: V. The aim of this study was to survey CRF, activity level, various health-related anthropometric variables, sedentary behaviour, and SES in the selected sample of year boys in the city of Ardabil, Iran.
According to our data, CRF of 8. Additionally, based on recommended PA time, These results were in agreement with Dennison et al. In regard to anthropometric health-related variables, In our previous study in at Pars-Abad, a city in Ardabil province almost km from the city of Ardabil, the total prevalence of overweight and obesity was In the previous study, we observed that a low physical activity rate and lower SES were more likely to lead to higher weight [ 30 ].
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Sedentary lifestyle habits may be formed at a young age, and aerobic fitness and PA behaviours tend to track throughout childhood, and possibly into adulthood [ 32 ]. Furthermore, a strong relationship between CRF and anthropometric health-related markers indicated that physical fitness can be one of the important factors to affect body composition. However, some studies showed that obese children had similar cardiovascular fitness to normal-weight children after adjustment for body composition [ 14 ].
Lower physical activity is the other important factor related to obesity.
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Obese children have impaired mobility and less self-confidence, which makes them participate in less physical activity [ 35 ]. We also observed a significant relationship between TVVPT as a marker of sedentary behaviour and anthropometric variables and physical activity Table 3. It seems that the new generation is deeply interested in TV watching and video playing. They spend the majority of their recreational time at home or video clubs without any activity. Epstein et al. Higher sedentary behaviour TVVPT and lower physical activity in the obese subjects than their counterparts in this study were found Table 5.
Some researchers in their studies demonstrated that more TV watching and video playing was associated with lower levels of PA [ 13 , 33 ] while some did not [ 17 ]. However, recent studies suggest that decreasing sedentary activity is very effective in promoting weight loss [ 41 ]. Few studies have examined in depth the influence of SES on physical fitness, and the findings are so far contradictory [ 18 , 22 , 29 ]. Jimenez-Pavon et al. In contrast, girls with higher paternal educational level or higher parental professional level had higher levels in both fitness components.
Moreover, a higher maternal educational level was associated with lower total and central body fat in boys, but not in girls. They concluded that there were modest associations of high SES with better fitness and fatness levels in Spanish adolescents [ 22 ].
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Another study observed higher CRF V. O 2 max estimated from 20 m shuttle run test in both boys and girls with high SES mother occupational level [ 29 ]. The discrepancies among studies could be due to the specific social and cultural contexts of each country together with the different methodologies used to assess fitness and SES factors. The main limitation of this study is its cross-sectional nature.
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Moreover, this study could not take subjects of both sexes. Further-more, we did not have a direct measure of body composition in this study. Future similar studies should consider using such a measure to provide a more accurate assessment. The results of this study indicated a significant relationship of CRF and sedentary behaviour with physical activity and health-related anthropometric variables in a selected sample of year boys.
