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Map of Democratic Republic of Congo showing where Bukavu town (study area) is Cholera epidemics have a recorded history in eastern Congo dating to at three cholera sites in the 3 different municipali- ties of Bukavu town (Fig.1a). The areas at greatest risk are those lacking basic infrastructure where the.
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The people living in the south and southwest were foraging groups, whose technology involved only minimal use of metal technologies. The development of metal tools during this time period revolutionized agriculture.

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This led to the displacement of the hunter-gatherer groups in the east and southeast. The final wave of the Bantu expansion was complete by the 10th century, followed by the establishment of the Bantu kingdoms, whose rising populations soon made possible intricate local, regional and foreign commercial networks that traded mostly in slaves, salt, iron and copper.

Belgian exploration and administration took place from the s until the s. The eastern regions of the precolonial Congo were heavily disrupted by constant slave raiding , mainly from Arab—Swahili slave traders such as the infamous Tippu Tip , who was well known to Stanley.

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Leopold had designs on what was to become the Congo as a colony. Leopold formally acquired rights to the Congo territory at the Conference of Berlin in and made the land his private property. He named it the Congo Free State. Nearly all such infrastructure projects were aimed at making it easier to increase the assets which Leopold and his associates could extract from the colony. In the Free State, colonists coerced the local population into producing rubber , for which the spread of automobiles and development of rubber tires created a growing international market.

Rubber sales made a fortune for Leopold, who built several buildings in Brussels and Ostend to honor himself and his country.


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To enforce the rubber quotas, the army, the Force Publique , was called in and made the practice of cutting off the limbs of the natives a matter of policy. During the period of —, millions of Congolese died as a consequence of exploitation and disease. News of the abuses began to circulate. In , the British consul at Boma in the Congo, Roger Casement was instructed by the British government to investigate.

His report, called the Casement Report , confirmed the accusations of humanitarian abuses. Its findings confirmed Casement's report of abuses, concluding that the population of the Congo had been "reduced by half" during this period.

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In , the Belgian parliament , in spite of initial reluctance, bowed to international pressure especially from the United Kingdom and took over the Free State from King Leopold II. On 18 October , the Belgian parliament voted in favour of annexing the Congo as a Belgian colony. Executive power went to the Belgian minister of colonial affairs , assisted by a Colonial Council Conseil Colonial both located in Brussels. The Belgian parliament exercised legislative authority over the Belgian Congo. The transition from the Congo Free State to the Belgian Congo was a break but it also featured a large degree of continuity.

Indigenous courts had only limited powers and remained under the firm control of the colonial administration. Records show that in , Belgian administrators ran the colony. The Belgian population of the colony increased from 1, in to nearly 89, in The Belgian Congo was directly involved in the two world wars. The Force Publique gained a notable victory when it marched into Tabora in September under the command of General Charles Tombeur after heavy fighting. After , Belgium was rewarded for the participation of the Force Publique in the East African campaign with a League of Nations mandate over the previously German colony of Ruanda-Urundi.

Lumumba declared Kasavubu's action unconstitutional and a crisis between the two leaders developed. Events set in motion by the U. On 17 January , he was handed over to Katangan authorities and executed by Belgian-led Katangese troops. The secession ended in January with the assistance of UN forces.


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With financial support from the United States and Belgium, Mobutu paid his soldiers privately. The new president had the staunch support of the United States because of his opposition to Communism; the US believed that his administration would serve as an effective counter to communist movements in Africa. He periodically held elections in which he was the only candidate. Although relative peace and stability were achieved, Mobutu's government was guilty of severe human rights violations , political repression , a cult of personality and corruption.

By late Mobutu had successfully neutralized his political opponents and rivals, either through co-opting them into his regime, arresting them, or rendering them otherwise politically impotent. Kasa-Vubu's death in April ensured that no person with First Republic credentials could challenge his rule.

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He traveled frequently across the continent while the government became more vocal about African issues, particularly those relating to the southern region. Zaire established semi-clientelist relationships with several smaller African states, especially Burundi, Chad, and Togo. Corruption became so common the term " le mal Zairois " or "Zairian Sickness", [50] meaning gross corruption, theft and mismanagement, was coined, reportedly by Mobutu himself. Zaire became a kleptocracy as Mobutu and his associates embezzled government funds.

This renaming campaign was completed in the s. In , Mobutu renamed the country the Republic of Zaire , [21] its fourth name change in eleven years and its sixth overall. The Congo River was renamed the Zaire River. During the s and s, he was invited to visit the United States on several occasions, meeting with U. Opponents within Zaire stepped up demands for reform. This atmosphere contributed to Mobutu's declaring the Third Republic in , whose constitution was supposed to pave the way for democratic reform.

The reforms turned out to be largely cosmetic. Mobutu continued in power until armed forces forced him to flee in By , following the Rwandan Civil War and genocide and the ascension of a Tutsi -led government in Rwanda, Rwandan Hutu militia forces Interahamwe fled to eastern Zaire and used refugee camps as a base for incursions against Rwanda.

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A coalition of Rwandan and Ugandan armies invaded Zaire to overthrow the government of Mobutu, and ultimately to control the mineral resources of Zaire, [ citation needed ] launching the First Congo War. In Mobutu fled and Kabila marched into Kinshasa, named himself president, and reverted the name of the country to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Kabila later requested that foreign military forces return to their own countries.

He had concerns that the Rwandan officers running his army were plotting to give the presidency to a Tutsi who would report directly to Rwanda n president, Paul Kagame. Angolan, Zimbabwean, and Namibian militaries entered the hostilities on the side of the government. Kabila was assassinated in His son Joseph Kabila succeeded him and called for multilateral peace talks. By June all foreign armies except those of Rwanda had pulled out of Congo. A transitional government was set up until after the election.

A constitution was approved by voters, and on 30 July DRC held its first multi-party elections.

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An election-result dispute between Kabila and Jean-Pierre Bemba turned into an all-out battle between their supporters in the streets of Kinshasa. MONUC took control of the city. A new election took place in October , which Kabila won, and in December he was sworn in as President. They were believed [ by whom? The CNDP signed a peace treaty with the government in which it agreed to become a political party and to have its soldiers integrated into the national army in exchange for the release of its imprisoned members.

In the resulting M23 rebellion , M23 briefly captured the provincial capital of Goma in November One study found that more than , women are raped in the Democratic Republic of Congo every year. The rebels were thought to be Allied Democratic Forces. In , major protests broke out across the country and protesters demanded that Joseph Kabila step down as President.

The protests began after the passage of a law by the Congolese lower house that, if also passed by the Congolese upper house, would keep Kabila in power at least until a national census was conducted a process which would likely take several years and therefore keep him in power past the planned elections, which he is constitutionally barred from participating in.

This bill passed; however, it was gutted of the provision that would keep Kabila in power until a census took place. A census is supposed to take place, but it is no longer tied to when the elections take place. In , elections were scheduled for late and a tenuous peace held in the Congo. On 27 November Congolese foreign minister Raymond Tshibanda told the press no elections would be held in , after 20 December, the end of president Kabila's term. In a conference in Madagascar, Tshibanda said that Kabila's government had "consulted election experts" from Congo, the United Nations and elsewhere, and that "it has been decided that the voter registration operation will end on July 31, , and that election will take place in April Across the country, dozens of protesters were killed and hundreds were arrested.

According to Jan Egeland , presently Secretary-General of the Norwegian Refugee Council , the situation in the DRC became much worse in and and is a major moral and humanitarian challenge comparable to the wars in Syria and Yemen, which receive much more attention. Women and children are abused sexually and "abused in all possible manners". Besides the conflict in North Kivu , violence has gone up in the Kasai region.