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They were inserted into the modules in situ, to avoid the accumulation of aligned base-tracks from cosmic-ray showers, not related to the exposure. The emulsion films were mounted in the modules inside a tent, to protect them from Sun heating and occasional volcanic dust or ash. The exposure started on October 22, and ended on March 24, for a total duration of about five months, mainly in wintertime. The emulsion temperature was monitored all along the exposure by a data-logger mounted on the detector. At the end of the exposure, emulsions films were extracted and packed in a different sequence, to prevent recording spurious tracks interconnected among emulsion films.

No damage due to excessive humidity, thermal or mechanical stresses was reported just after the extraction or after the chemical development. The emulsion films corresponding to the eight detector modules were distributed among the Napoli, Salerno and Tokyo scanning laboratories. For the exposure reported here, ten-year-old emulsion films produced for the OPERA experiment were used.

Nuclear emulsion suffers aging effects leading to a worsening of its sensitivity and to an increase of background grains, in particular of those thermally generated called fog. The resulting degradation of the track reconstruction efficiency was found to be especially significant in the emulsion films of one of the detector modules, so that they were discarded. The total analyzed emulsion area was 0.

Emulsions record tracks passed through with any angle, and all of them can be acquired by the scanning system we used 35 , We acquired tracks in a range up to 0. Only tracks with 3 and 4 basetracks were taken into account here. This conservative way of estimation includes all contributions to the accuracy coming from scanning system and emulsion geometry, getting rid of possible distortions and alignment effects.

To estimate the low-momentum rejection threshold we simulated our detector using the FLUKA 37 package. Muons with momentum ranging from 0.

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These hits were sent through the reconstruction software for tracking. Finally we compared tracks reconstructed with those simulated to measure the track reconstruction efficiency as a function of their momentum.


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In our detector red line all muons below 0. One more type of background is the combinatorial one due to fake tracks formed by random coincidence of segments. In this case all tracks obtained by the reconstruction are fake ones. We got the fake-to-real tracks ratio as 0. We applied data driven efficiency correction using the reconstructed tracks. On the contrary low momentum background including electrons and other soft showers components cannot be reconstructed as a straight track in both doublets. To reject such physical background we consider, for this muography, tracks with 3 N 3 and 4 N 4 base-tracks only.

Taking into account that in this sample emulsion inefficiency is the main reason to miss the basetrack and assuming a binomial distribution for the detected base-tracks, we have estimated the number of passing-through tracks N 0 using N 3 and N 4. This value was estimated for each angular bin in the acceptance range and it was used as a the measured number of muons for the analysis. The inefficiency was simulated by removing randomly hits basetracks from the sample according to the probability value.

Afterward, the track reconstruction procedure was applied using the same acceptances as for real data, followed by the efficiency correction procedure. We observe that in the relevant efficiency range the number of tracks N 0 found after the correction does not deviate by more then 3. The volcano is described as uniformly consisting of rock with a reference density of 2.

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The color scale represents the number of entries in the bins. The color scale is the rock thickness in meters. The white profile gives the statistical sensitivity limit, as defined in the text. Color scale represent muons counts. The average density ranges in between 1. The highly populated zones above the mountain correspond to the muon flux from the free sky, which is maximal at the Zenith and decreases towards the horizon. To evaluate the agreement between data and simulation we plotted the relative difference calculated bin by bin in a free sky region Fig.

The free sky on the side opposite to the mountain is mirrored at negative angles. A band extending above and below the line of horizon extrapolated inside the mountain is dominated by background 11 mainly attributed to a soft electromagnetic component scattered through the atmosphere or nearby rocks. For each angular bin in the free sky region the relative spread between expectation and data is calculated.

The two-dimensional histogram in Fig. The black profile is derived from the measured muon flux, shown in Fig. The blue profile is derived from the MC flux, shown Fig. The angular agreement between all tree curves is good, being propagated to the distance from the detector to the target it stay within a few meters. The white curve in Fig. Three regions are indicated in the figure: A — free sky region, B — region accessible to muography and C — deep rock. The white profile is here considered as the sensitivity limit in the presented configuration in case of zero background.

To estimate the background the data region with low theta-angle corresponding to the deep rock where the signal is expected to be at zero level was used. Therefore, in this study we are sensitive to the region above the dashed line.


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We observe a clear excess of muon flux in the crater zone Fig. The retrieved density estimation is relative and depends on the reference rock density 39 which was taken as 2. There are three major components contributing to the uncertainty of this value, coming from the expected muon flux, rock thickness and the statistical error of the measured flux.

The uncertainty of the expected simulated flux comes mainly from fluctuation of the low-momentum part of the muon spectrum which can not be entirely rejected Fig. The spread between expected and measured values in the sky region Fig. On the other hand, the statistical uncertainty is the leading contribution below the white dashed line.

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The events occurred at Stromboli in recent years have highlighted the potential impact of the crater region dynamics and the Sciara del Fuoco evolution on the risk level in the island. Furthermore, on April 5 , a paroxysmal explosion occurred in the crater region 44 , In , another effusive phase had a strong impact on the crater area and Sciara del Fuoco flank 46 , 47 , Also this eruption was accompanied by a paroxysmal explosion, on March 15th, preceded by intense fracturing of the crater region This interpretation suggests a strong control of the crater area structure and the Sciara del Fuoco slope on the volcanic dynamics of Stromboli Island.

Studies, based on electrical resistivity and self-potential measurements 53 , 54 , on gravity data 39 aeromagnetic surveys 55 and on seismic tomography 56 have been carried out to gain insights into the structure of Stromboli edifice. In particular 53 , conducted combined measurements of electrical resistivity, self-potential, CO 2 and temperature to study the shallow hydrothermal system of the Stromboli volcano.

They identify a conductive body in the summit part of the volcano crater zone that they interpret as the main hydrothermal system of Stromboli. Therefore, our muography experiment is focused on the crater region. Before the beginning of the muography started on October 22, , on August 2, an effusive phase occurred due to lava overflow from NE crater 58 , accompanied by remarkable explosions.

Two major explosions occurred on September 5 and September 9. During the first month of data-taking the eruptive activity decreased and returned to the normal level. Two major explosions occurred on February 15 and March 6, , however they did not cause significant changes of the crater region morphology. The experiment ended on March 24, Our experiment allowed us to obtain the first muon absorption radiography of the crater region of Stromboli. The muography, shown in Fig. The elongation of the low-density zone towards SW right on the Figure indicates that the density anomaly also includes the crater valley at the summit of the volcano, where other eruptive vents are located.

The anomaly of the flux along the muon path through the crater zone indicates a density decrease down to 1. Our findings are consistent with the above geophysical surveys 39 , 53 , 55 indicating that low-density, high-porosity, pyroclastic deposits characterize the collapsed zone of the crater area. Actually 55 , found a magnetization low in the crater zone.

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In particular, the sector of the volcano imaged by our muography experiment includes, along the muon paths, part of the main hydrothermal system highlighted by 53 and also the south-west sector of the summit zone which is characterized by high resistivity. Basically, from our exposure site we find a low density anomaly that is consistent with the presence of low density pyroclastic material and degassing conduits that can supply heat to the hydrothermal system. Therefore the muography allows us to image the collapse structure that was created by the and eruptions, which controls the eruptive style of Stromboli after The chosen value of the reference rock density 2.

The density anomaly can be well explained by the presence of porous incoherent material that fills the collapse structure in the summit crater zone. A low density comparable with the anomaly of Stromboli has been reported by 59 at La Soufriere volcano. Precise muography measurements of deep rock regions requires the ability for cutting off the low-momentum particles presenting the main source of the background as shown in 60 and The nuclear emulsion is in principle similar to the photographic emulsion, but it is sensitive to single ionizing particles.

AgBr crystals interspersed in a gel matrix are sensitized by ionization caused by charged particles, producing a latent image. After the chemical process of emulsion development, grains of metallic Ag grow after nucleation by the latent image sites, normally up to the size of 0. The path of a ionizing particle is thus marked by a sequence of grains. The average number of grains building up the track in the sensitive emulsion layer depends on the strength of ionization Latent images of particles tracks are continuously stored in emulsion during the timespan of data taking, until they are made visible following their chemical development as for photographic emulsion.

A true re-birth nuclear emulsion technique occurred in by the with the development of emulsion analysis by automated microscopes 65 , 66 that opened the way to large scale applications. Profiting of the developments realized in the OPERA experiment, the nuclear emulsion technique became readily applicable to muography and was used for the pioneering observations at the Mt. Asama volcano 2. Recent developments of even faster scanning systems operating in a wide angular range 35 , 67 , 68 , 69 further extends the applications area for this technique.

Thanks to the sub-micrometric resolution, the nuclear emulsion has since the beginnings proven to be a privileged tool for observing the decays of short-lived particles, as well as a precision particle tracker in very compact detectors for applications, such as muography. Emulsion detectors do not require electricity supply nor maintenance. The latter features were considered as a must in the choice of the detector technique for harsh environment characterizing the slopes of the Stromboli volcano.

The basic detector element is an emulsion film that is technically sophisticated but mechanically simple. Micro-tracks are reconstructed from aligned grains in each single emulsion layer Fig. Aligned micro-tracks are connected across the plastic base to form a so-called base - track. This is characterized by a higher precision thanks to the longer lever arm given by the thickness of the plastic base and to the well-defined geometry in spite of the emulsion distortion in drying-out and shrinking after the chemical development. Emulsion films are piled-up on stacks to provide several measurements points for the reconstruction of through going particle tracks.