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Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, is a country in Western Asia constituting The earliest sedentary culture in Saudi Arabia dates back to the Ubaid period, upon Ideological divisions include issues over the speed and direction of reform, KSA; Arabic: ٱلْمَمْلَكَة ٱلْعَرَبِيَّة ٱلسَّعُوْدِيَّة‎ al-Mamlakah al-​ʿArabīyah.
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The Nabataeans ruled large portions of north Arabia until their domain was annexed by the Roman Empire. Shortly before the advent of Islam, apart from urban trading settlements such as Mecca and Medina , much of what was to become Saudi Arabia was populated by nomadic pastoral tribal societies. In the early 7th century, Muhammad united the various tribes of the peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity. Arabia soon became a more politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the focus shifted to the vast and newly conquered lands. Arabs originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia, the Hejaz in particular, founded the Rashidun — , Umayyad — , Abbasid — and the Fatimid — caliphates.

From the 10th century to the early 20th century, Mecca and Medina were under the control of a local Arab ruler known as the Sharif of Mecca , but at most times the Sharif owed allegiance to the ruler of one of the major Islamic empires based in Baghdad , Cairo or Istanbul. Most of the remainder of what became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule. For much of the 10th century, the Isma'ili -Shi'ite Qarmatians were the most powerful force in the Persian Gulf.

In , the Qarmatians pillaged Mecca, outraging the Muslim world, particularly with their theft of the Black Stone. The Bani Khalid tribe later revolted against them in 17th century and took control. The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began in Nejd in central Arabia in , when Muhammad bin Saud , founder of the dynasty, joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab , [96] founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam.

The first "Saudi state" established in in the area around Riyadh , rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia, [99] sacking Karbala in and capturing Mecca in , but was destroyed by by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt , Mohammed Ali Pasha.

Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the Al Rashid , who ruled the Emirate of Jabal Shammar. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have a suzerainty over most of the peninsula.

Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers, [] [] with the Sharif of Mecca having pre-eminence and ruling the Hejaz.

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Ibn Saud avoided involvement in the Arab Revolt, and instead continued his struggle with the Al Rashid. Following the latter's final defeat, he took the title Sultan of Nejd in For the next five years, he administered the two parts of his dual kingdom as separate units. After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leadership's objective switched to expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan , Iraq and Kuwait , and began raiding those territories.

This met with Ibn Saud's opposition, as he recognized the danger of a direct conflict with the British. At the same time, the Ikhwan became disenchanted with Ibn Saud's domestic policies which appeared to favor modernization and the increase in the number of non-Muslim foreigners in the country.

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As a result, they turned against Ibn Saud and, after a two-year struggle, were defeated in at the Battle of Sabilla , where their leaders were massacred. The new kingdom was reliant on limited agriculture and pilgrimage revenues. Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and substantial political leverage internationally. Cultural life rapidly developed, primarily in the Hejaz, which was the center for newspapers and radio.

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However, the large influx of foreign workers in Saudi Arabia in the oil industry increased the pre-existing propensity for xenophobia. By the s this had led to large governmental deficits and excessive foreign borrowing. In , Saud of Saudi Arabia succeeded as the king of Saudi Arabia, on his father's death, until when he was deposed in favor of his half brother Faisal of Saudi Arabia , after an intense rivalry, fueled by doubts in the royal family over Saud's competence.

Oil prices quadrupled. By , Saudi Arabia had become the largest oil producer in the world. The first was the Iranian Islamic Revolution.

Saudi Arabia

It was feared that the country's Shi'ite minority in the Eastern Province which is also the location of the oil fields might rebel under the influence of their Iranian co-religionists. There were several anti-government uprisings in the region such as the Qatif Uprising. The militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi government.

Part of the response of the royal family was to enforce a much stricter observance of traditional religious and social norms in the country for example, the closure of cinemas and to give the Ulema a greater role in government. In , Saudi Arabia bought out the American interests in Aramco.

King Khalid died of a heart attack in June He was succeeded by his brother, King Fahd , who added the title "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques" to his name in in response to considerable fundamentalist pressure to avoid use of "majesty" in association with anything except God. Fahd continued to develop close relations with the United States and increased the purchase of American and British military equipment. The vast wealth generated by oil revenues was beginning to have an even greater impact on Saudi society.

It led to rapid technological but not cultural modernization, urbanization, mass public education and the creation of new media. This and the presence of increasingly large numbers of foreign workers greatly affected traditional Saudi norms and values. Although there was dramatic change in the social and economic life of the country, political power continued to be monopolized by the royal family [80] leading to discontent among many Saudis who began to look for wider participation in government.

He invited the Kuwaiti government and many of its citizens to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens of Yemen and Jordan because of their governments' support of Iraq. In , Saudi Arabian forces were involved both in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait. Saudi Arabia's relations with the West began to cause growing concern among some of the ulema and students of sharia law and was one of the issues that led to an increase in Islamist terrorism in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamist terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals.

Osama bin Laden was a Saudi citizen until stripped of his citizenship in and was responsible for the U. Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the government.


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Although now extremely wealthy, Saudi Arabia's economy was near stagnant. High taxes and a growth in unemployment have contributed to discontent, and has been reflected in a rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a number of limited "reforms" were initiated by King Fahd. In March , he introduced the " Basic Law ", which emphasized the duties and responsibilities of a ruler. In December , the Consultative Council was inaugurated. It is composed of a chairman and 60 members—all chosen by the King.

The King's intent was to respond to dissent while making as few actual changes in the status quo as possible. In , Fahd suffered a debilitating stroke, and the Crown Prince, Abdullah , assumed the role of de facto regent , taking on the day-to-day running of the country.

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However, his authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd's full brothers known, with Fahd, as the " Sudairi Seven ". Women were not allowed to take part in the poll. In , King Fahd died and was succeeded by Abdullah, who continued the policy of minimum reform and clamping down on protests. The king introduced a number of economic reforms aimed at reducing the country's reliance on oil revenue: limited deregulation, encouragement of foreign investment, and privatization.